Executive Summary
Climate change poses a serious threat to global food security and nutrition, especially for vulnerable populations. Rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and the increased prevalence of pests and diseases can lead to decreased crop yields, lower nutritional content in crops, and economic hardships for farmers. Climate change amplifies the risks for micronutrient deficiencies, also known as "hidden hunger," where diets lack essential vitamins and minerals. In regions like India, where wheat is a staple, climate-related factors are especially concerning as increased temperatures and shifting rainfall patterns threaten wheat yields.
Food fortification, the addition of essential nutrients to staple foods, is a promising strategy to address this issue, ensuring staple foods deliver vital micronutrients even in less diverse diets. As a scalable and cost-effective intervention, food fortification has shown evidence of improving health outcomes. This note examines the challenges of hidden hunger in a changing climate, focusing on how reduced crop yields and economic impacts can affect nutrition and the role of food fortification in addressing these issues.
The Impact of Climate Change on Nutrition
Research on the impact of climate change on nutrition is relatively nascent. Nutritional experts generally agree that climate change poses a significant threat to global food security and nutrition, particularly for vulnerable populations. However, the specific pathways through which climate change affects nutrition are intricate and context-dependent. Initiatives like the Standing Together for Nutrition (ST4N) platform are working to consolidate existing knowledge and identify gaps to inform effective solutions and policy changes (Forum, 2024).
Overall wheat production has increased significantly in recent decades, but climate change could depress wheat yields in regions like India. While CO2 fertilisation and a longer growing season might benefit wheat production in some areas, others, like India, might experience negative impacts due to increased temperatures (Ritchie and Roser, 2024; Kumar et al., 2014).
Direct effects:
Global warming impacts crop yields in varied ways across countries. Studies show that climate change impacts crop yields differently depending on the crop type, geographical location, and regional climate conditions. However, research indicates a concerning overall trend of crop yield stress due to rising temperatures, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions.
Climate change is significantly affecting wheat yields in India, a crucial food source. Research shows that regions like the Indo-Gangetic Plains face significant risks to crop yields due to climate impacts, including heatwaves, fluctuating rainfall, and pressure on traditional crop varieties, all of which contribute to declines (Burney & Ramanathan, 2014). Extreme weather events like droughts and floods further disrupt wheat production (Daloz et al., 2021). These factors contribute to reduced food security and potentially worsen hidden hunger, as people have less access to diverse and nutritious foods.
The mechanisms through which climate change affects crop yields are multifaceted:
Several experts predict that the cumulative effect of climate-related factors will lead to increased production of high-yield staple crops, such as rice, wheat, and maize, globally, while reducing the production of more climate-sensitive crops, including many fruits, vegetables, and legumes (Cena and Calder, 2020; Sulser et al., 2021). These crop shifts are likely to lead to dietary changes, with increased reliance on staple foods and reduced intake of nutrient-rich, plant-based foods, which could exacerbate chronic and hidden hunger due to limited access to diverse and nutritious diets.
Indirect effects:
Climate change can also indirectly worsen hidden hunger. Rising temperatures and extreme weather events, such as droughts, floods, and storms, disrupt livelihoods across the Global South. This can lead to poverty, food insecurity, and limited access to diverse, nutrient-rich foods. In fact, one study predicts that climate change may drive over 100 million people into extreme poverty by 2030 (Sanober, 2023).
Climate change may impact livelihoods in multiple ways:
These economic effects of climate change may decrease the affordability of diverse, nutritious foods for millions of people across the world.
Food Fortification: A Solution to Hidden Hunger
Food fortification is one potentially promising strategy to mitigate the negative nutritional effects of climate change. Food fortification is the process of adding essential vitamins and minerals to commonly consumed staple foods to improve their nutritional content. Food fortification aims to address micronutrient deficiencies in populations by ensuring that staple foods deliver essential nutrients necessary for good health and development (Allen et al., 2006).
Staple foods can be fortified with various micronutrients based on the specific deficiencies being targeted. Iron is often added to wheat flour, maize flour, and rice to combat anaemia. Vitamin A is often used to fortify sugar, margarine, and oils to prevent vision problems. Iodine is added to salt to prevent disorders like goitre. Folic acid is included in wheat flour to reduce neural tube defects, while zinc and vitamin D are added to cereals and dairy products to support immune function and bone health.
Food fortification has a long history, dating back to the early 20th century. There are many examples of fortification successfully reducing the burden of hidden hunger:
The Role of Food Fortification in Climate Change Mitigation
Food fortification is one potentially promising strategy to help mitigate the impact of climate change. We do not want to overstate the importance of food fortification in addressing the effects of climate change. Diverse and naturally nutrient-rich diets are the ultimate, long-term solution to hidden hunger. However, food fortification could play a significant short-term role in addressing nutritional deficiencies that are exacerbated by climate change. In particular, fortification enhances the nutrient content of staple foods, which may be particularly important as climate change means many people eating less diverse diets or the natural micronutrient content of staple foods declines.
Case Studies: Fortification in Action:
While research on the direct impact of fortification programs in the context of climate change is still evolving, several examples showcase its potential to bolster nutritional resilience in vulnerable populations.
Bangladesh: A programme to fortify wheat flour with multiple micronutrients, including iron and zinc, was implemented in flood-prone regions in Bangladesh. This intervention aimed to address potential deficiencies arising from climate-related disruptions to agriculture. The program has shown promising results in improving the nutritional status of the affected populations (Mishra, 2022).
Vietnam: Rising sea levels threaten rice production in coastal areas of Vietnam. A fortification programme, fortifying rice flour with vitamin A was implemented to address potential deficiencies. This initiative has helped improve vitamin A intake and reduce the prevalence of deficiencies in these regions (Trinh et al., 2014).
Afghanistan: Afghanistan's wheat flour fortification program, initiated in 2005 with support from international organisations like the World Food Programme (WFP), UNICEF, and the Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN), has shown significant success in combating micronutrient deficiencies in a challenging environment. Recent findings indicate that the prevalence of anaemia among women of reproductive age in Afghanistan decreased by 20% from 2005 to 2015, attributed to the iron fortification of wheat flour (Ghaur, 2017). Folic acid fortification has also contributed to a decline in neural tube defects in newborns, while zinc fortification has enhanced immune function in children under five.
Potential Benefits and Limitations of Fortification in the Context of Climate Resilience:
Below, we outline some of the benefits of fortification as a mitigation strategy and some of its limitations.
Benefits:
Limitations:
Fortify Health’s Role
Fortify Health is one of many organisations working globally to implement food fortification programs and ensure access to essential nutrients. Our work in India focuses on wheat flour fortification, a crucial intervention in a country where wheat is a staple food. We utilise a multi-pronged approach:
We have partnered with more than 85 mill partners across India as of July 2024 and we estimate that the fortified atta that we support feeds more than 3 million people per day.
Organisations like Fortify Health are on the frontlines, fortifying staple foods like wheat flour to combat hidden hunger. Your support through donations can help expand these efforts, reaching more communities with fortified foods that improve health outcomes and resilience. To donate to Fortify Health, please visit our website https://www.fortifyhealth.global/donate.html To learn more about our work, head to our website or subscribe to our newsletter.
Climate change poses a serious threat to global food security and nutrition, especially for vulnerable populations. Rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and the increased prevalence of pests and diseases can lead to decreased crop yields, lower nutritional content in crops, and economic hardships for farmers. Climate change amplifies the risks for micronutrient deficiencies, also known as "hidden hunger," where diets lack essential vitamins and minerals. In regions like India, where wheat is a staple, climate-related factors are especially concerning as increased temperatures and shifting rainfall patterns threaten wheat yields.
Food fortification, the addition of essential nutrients to staple foods, is a promising strategy to address this issue, ensuring staple foods deliver vital micronutrients even in less diverse diets. As a scalable and cost-effective intervention, food fortification has shown evidence of improving health outcomes. This note examines the challenges of hidden hunger in a changing climate, focusing on how reduced crop yields and economic impacts can affect nutrition and the role of food fortification in addressing these issues.
The Impact of Climate Change on Nutrition
Research on the impact of climate change on nutrition is relatively nascent. Nutritional experts generally agree that climate change poses a significant threat to global food security and nutrition, particularly for vulnerable populations. However, the specific pathways through which climate change affects nutrition are intricate and context-dependent. Initiatives like the Standing Together for Nutrition (ST4N) platform are working to consolidate existing knowledge and identify gaps to inform effective solutions and policy changes (Forum, 2024).
Overall wheat production has increased significantly in recent decades, but climate change could depress wheat yields in regions like India. While CO2 fertilisation and a longer growing season might benefit wheat production in some areas, others, like India, might experience negative impacts due to increased temperatures (Ritchie and Roser, 2024; Kumar et al., 2014).
Direct effects:
Global warming impacts crop yields in varied ways across countries. Studies show that climate change impacts crop yields differently depending on the crop type, geographical location, and regional climate conditions. However, research indicates a concerning overall trend of crop yield stress due to rising temperatures, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions.
Climate change is significantly affecting wheat yields in India, a crucial food source. Research shows that regions like the Indo-Gangetic Plains face significant risks to crop yields due to climate impacts, including heatwaves, fluctuating rainfall, and pressure on traditional crop varieties, all of which contribute to declines (Burney & Ramanathan, 2014). Extreme weather events like droughts and floods further disrupt wheat production (Daloz et al., 2021). These factors contribute to reduced food security and potentially worsen hidden hunger, as people have less access to diverse and nutritious foods.
The mechanisms through which climate change affects crop yields are multifaceted:
- ⦿ Changes in Precipitation Patterns: Shifts in precipitation, including more frequent and severe droughts and floods, disrupt the growing conditions for many crops, impacting both staple and non-staple yields (Rosenzweig et al., 2014).
- ⦿ Elevated CO2 Levels: While CO₂ increases can stimulate growth, they also reduce nutrient content in crops. Elevated CO₂ has been linked to lower iron concentrations in staples like wheat, rice, and maize (Myers et al., 2014).
- ⦿ Pests and Diseases: Climate change may also increase the prevalence and spread of agricultural pests and diseases, further threatening crop yields (Skendžić et al., 2021).
Several experts predict that the cumulative effect of climate-related factors will lead to increased production of high-yield staple crops, such as rice, wheat, and maize, globally, while reducing the production of more climate-sensitive crops, including many fruits, vegetables, and legumes (Cena and Calder, 2020; Sulser et al., 2021). These crop shifts are likely to lead to dietary changes, with increased reliance on staple foods and reduced intake of nutrient-rich, plant-based foods, which could exacerbate chronic and hidden hunger due to limited access to diverse and nutritious diets.
Indirect effects:
Climate change can also indirectly worsen hidden hunger. Rising temperatures and extreme weather events, such as droughts, floods, and storms, disrupt livelihoods across the Global South. This can lead to poverty, food insecurity, and limited access to diverse, nutrient-rich foods. In fact, one study predicts that climate change may drive over 100 million people into extreme poverty by 2030 (Sanober, 2023).
Climate change may impact livelihoods in multiple ways:
- ⦿ Income Losses: Farmers and agricultural workers may face significant income losses due to reduced yields and crop failures. This economic impact can make it difficult for families to afford a diverse diet that includes fruits, vegetables, and legumes (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, 2018).
- ⦿ Price Increases: Reduced supply of diverse foods can drive up prices, making these foods less accessible to low-income families. Staples, which are typically more affordable, become the primary source of nutrition, leading to a less varied diet (FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, 2018).
- ⦿ Access to Markets: Climate events can disrupt transportation and market access, further limiting the availability of diverse foods in certain regions (Vermeulen, Campbell and Ingram, 2012). When roads are damaged or markets are inaccessible, communities may rely heavily on locally available staples, reducing dietary diversity.
These economic effects of climate change may decrease the affordability of diverse, nutritious foods for millions of people across the world.
Food Fortification: A Solution to Hidden Hunger
Food fortification is one potentially promising strategy to mitigate the negative nutritional effects of climate change. Food fortification is the process of adding essential vitamins and minerals to commonly consumed staple foods to improve their nutritional content. Food fortification aims to address micronutrient deficiencies in populations by ensuring that staple foods deliver essential nutrients necessary for good health and development (Allen et al., 2006).
Staple foods can be fortified with various micronutrients based on the specific deficiencies being targeted. Iron is often added to wheat flour, maize flour, and rice to combat anaemia. Vitamin A is often used to fortify sugar, margarine, and oils to prevent vision problems. Iodine is added to salt to prevent disorders like goitre. Folic acid is included in wheat flour to reduce neural tube defects, while zinc and vitamin D are added to cereals and dairy products to support immune function and bone health.
Food fortification has a long history, dating back to the early 20th century. There are many examples of fortification successfully reducing the burden of hidden hunger:
- ⦿ Salt Iodisation: salt iodisation has virtually eliminated iodine deficiency disorders in many parts of the world. According to the Iodine Global Network, over 120 countries have mandated salt iodisation, resulting in improved cognitive function and reduced goitre rates (IGN, 2020).
- ⦿ Wheat Flour Fortification: In countries like the United States and Canada, wheat flour is fortified with iron, folic acid, and other B vitamins. This has led to significant reductions in iron deficiency anaemia and neural tube defects (K Grimm, B Sinclair, 2008).
- ⦿ Vitamin A Fortification: In the Philippines and Guatemala, sugar and margarine are fortified with vitamin A, helping to reduce vitamin A deficiency and prevent associated vision problems and immune deficiencies (Report, 2018; Hombali et al., 2019).
- ⦿ Rice Fortification: In countries like Bangladesh and the Philippines, rice is fortified with iron, zinc, and other micronutrients to combat widespread nutritional deficiencies (Ramaswamy et al., 2022; GAIN, 2024).
The Role of Food Fortification in Climate Change Mitigation
Food fortification is one potentially promising strategy to help mitigate the impact of climate change. We do not want to overstate the importance of food fortification in addressing the effects of climate change. Diverse and naturally nutrient-rich diets are the ultimate, long-term solution to hidden hunger. However, food fortification could play a significant short-term role in addressing nutritional deficiencies that are exacerbated by climate change. In particular, fortification enhances the nutrient content of staple foods, which may be particularly important as climate change means many people eating less diverse diets or the natural micronutrient content of staple foods declines.
Case Studies: Fortification in Action:
While research on the direct impact of fortification programs in the context of climate change is still evolving, several examples showcase its potential to bolster nutritional resilience in vulnerable populations.
Bangladesh: A programme to fortify wheat flour with multiple micronutrients, including iron and zinc, was implemented in flood-prone regions in Bangladesh. This intervention aimed to address potential deficiencies arising from climate-related disruptions to agriculture. The program has shown promising results in improving the nutritional status of the affected populations (Mishra, 2022).
Vietnam: Rising sea levels threaten rice production in coastal areas of Vietnam. A fortification programme, fortifying rice flour with vitamin A was implemented to address potential deficiencies. This initiative has helped improve vitamin A intake and reduce the prevalence of deficiencies in these regions (Trinh et al., 2014).
Afghanistan: Afghanistan's wheat flour fortification program, initiated in 2005 with support from international organisations like the World Food Programme (WFP), UNICEF, and the Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN), has shown significant success in combating micronutrient deficiencies in a challenging environment. Recent findings indicate that the prevalence of anaemia among women of reproductive age in Afghanistan decreased by 20% from 2005 to 2015, attributed to the iron fortification of wheat flour (Ghaur, 2017). Folic acid fortification has also contributed to a decline in neural tube defects in newborns, while zinc fortification has enhanced immune function in children under five.
Potential Benefits and Limitations of Fortification in the Context of Climate Resilience:
Below, we outline some of the benefits of fortification as a mitigation strategy and some of its limitations.
Benefits:
- 1. Safety Net for Essential Nutrients: Staple crops are often the most reliable source of calories in a climate-impacted food system. Fortification ensures these crops deliver essential micronutrients that might otherwise be lacking in a less diverse diet. This is particularly important in regions where climate change has reduced the availability of fruits, vegetables, and other nutrient-dense foods (Allen et al., 2006).
- 2. Scalability: Fortification programs can reach large populations efficiently through staple foods that are widely consumed (Olson et al., 2021). This is particularly crucial in emergencies or situations where access to diverse foods is limited due to climate impacts
- 3. Cost-Effectiveness: Fortification is a relatively inexpensive and scalable intervention. It can reach a large population with minimal disruption to existing food habits. According to the Copenhagen Consensus Center, food fortification is one of the most cost-effective interventions for improving public health, with a return on investment estimated at $9 for every $1 spent (Kydland et al., 2012).
- 4. Evidence-based: The global evidence base for food fortification is robust. Numerous studies have documented its success in improving micronutrient levels in populations and reducing the burden of associated health problems. For example, a study published in The New England Journal of Medicine demonstrated that folic acid fortification in Canada reduced the incidence of neural tube defects by 46% (Uh et al., 2007).
Limitations:
- 1. Over-Reliance: Fortification should not be seen as a silver bullet. It's most effective when combined with other strategies like dietary diversification, improved agricultural practices, and social safety nets. Over-reliance solely on fortification could lead to complacency in addressing the root causes of malnutrition (Olson et al., 2021).
- 2. Nutrient Stability: Some fortified nutrients may degrade during storage or processing, reducing their effectiveness. Maintaining quality control throughout the food supply chain is crucial (Ahmad and Ahmed, 2019).
- 3. Consumer Acceptance: Fortification programmes need to consider cultural preferences and ensure that fortified foods are acceptable to consumers. Although it is possible to fortify some staples in a way that does not change the sensory characteristics of those staples, this relies upon effective and well-implemented fortification with appropriate quality control (Ahmad and Ahmed, 2019; Olson et al., 2021).
Fortify Health’s Role
Fortify Health is one of many organisations working globally to implement food fortification programs and ensure access to essential nutrients. Our work in India focuses on wheat flour fortification, a crucial intervention in a country where wheat is a staple food. We utilise a multi-pronged approach:
- ⦿ Open Market: We collaborate with flour mills to make high-quality fortified atta (wheat flour) readily available in the open market.
- ⦿ Partnerships: We forge partnerships with government agencies, NGOs, and other stakeholders to expand the reach of fortification programs.
- ⦿ Evidence Generation: We actively conduct research and advocacy to build a strong evidence base for the importance of food fortification.
We have partnered with more than 85 mill partners across India as of July 2024 and we estimate that the fortified atta that we support feeds more than 3 million people per day.
Organisations like Fortify Health are on the frontlines, fortifying staple foods like wheat flour to combat hidden hunger. Your support through donations can help expand these efforts, reaching more communities with fortified foods that improve health outcomes and resilience. To donate to Fortify Health, please visit our website https://www.fortifyhealth.global/donate.html To learn more about our work, head to our website or subscribe to our newsletter.
References:
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